Food History - The Evolution of Our World From Bread to Cheesecake

Ever wonder about the origins of certain foods? Who was the first person to eat an oyster and why? What hardened meringue was used as medicinal candy to soothe children's sore throats? What food was served to those first Olympians in 776 B.C? What has been found in pits where human settlements lived 8,000 years ago? The origins of food are varied, ingenious and ever evolving and have not only made history, but are history.

One of the oldest known foods is credited for bringing cavemen together to live in communities rather than herd and hunt as nomads. Civilizations found various ways of growing, preparing grain and baking dough to become bread, a staple which was plentiful in summer and sustained them during winter. Excavated cities dating back to Pompeii have revealed the secrets of the ancient bakery where rich and poor alike, came together over bread. Wheat has been discovered in the remains of settlements from over 8,000 years ago stamping today's main grain as a link to our past.

One of the most delicious or dangerous delicacies on our menu is the Latin mussirio, or mushrooms. Like bread, fungi may also date back to prehistoric times and are marked throughout Greek, Roman, Chinese, Japanese and European culinary history. Mushrooms lack chlorophyll and therefore must grow from other things such as dead plants, tree roots or animals. We think of fungus as a bad thing, but where would be without yeast? We'd miss bread, truffles and the beer for our BBQs.

Then there's the poor, misunderstood mollusk. Many people shy away from their gray, shiny, slippery surfaces. Archeological evidence would point to oysters as coming out of their shells around the same time as dirt but details on this are as murky as the beds in which they're found. Oyster farming was well documented during the 4th century but was interrupted by the barbarian invasion and does not surface again till the 14th century as a privilege of the rich. It wasn't till the 19th century when oysters became more plentiful that dishes such as stew, fried oysters, oysters Florentine and oyster shish kabob began to emerge.

When Harvard graduate students Herbert Dick and Earle Smith went digging in a New Mexico bat cave, little did they know they would end up with 5,600-year-old popcorn. Smith and Dick unearthed various well-preserved corn cob fragments including several that were partially or completely popped. When dropped in oil, a few of the kernels still had a spark and exploded into white puffs. Throughout the centuries, popcorn has been used as food, in ornamental headdresses, as breakfast cereal during colonial times and as an attraction inside and out in front of department stores. During the depression, when other businesses went bust, popcorn, well, popped. What would a movie theater be without popcorn?

What were the first Olympians dining on between chariot races? You guessed it: cheesecake. Well, maybe not but historians believe it to have been on the first games' menu. It has also been traced back to 2,000 B.C through unearthed cheese molds. If the internet had been invented in 200 BC, cave-wives all over the world could have been sharing Marcus Porcius Cato's recipe for cheese libum, or cheese cake. From there, cheesecake spread from Greece to Europe then finally to America. This confection is celebrated by every region and culture and is one of the world's most popular desserts.

Originating in ancient Egypt, the marshmallow started out as a honey candy that was thickened and flavored with the sap of the marsh-mallow plant. This goo-filled growth appeared on banks near large bodies of water and in salt marshes. Nineteenth century doctors creatively extracted the plant's juices, boiled it with egg whites and sugar and whipped it into a meringue, that when hardened, was used as a children's sore throat lozenge. When gelatin replaced the plant's sap, its medicinal values as a cough suppressant, immune system booster and wound healer disappeared. The production process evolved as well with the invention of the cornstarch mold method which later gave way to the more modern extrusion process. This involved piping the sugary mixture through long tubes to be cut into pillowy, equal-sized shapes.

Years from now when archeologists unearth our society, we wonder what they'll learn from specimens such as pork floss, beef pizzle or the much loved Now and Later variety of pull-your-teeth-out candy chews. One can only wonder.....and keep good notes.

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Stock Pot - A Brief History

The history of the stock pot is not nearly as ancient as one would think. Cooking vessels were a very slow but necessary part of the evolution of humanity. While early man used reeds, turtle sheets, mollusks and the stomach from animals to heat their food, the evolution to pottery was a slow process. Pottery allowed the containment of the food substances over a slow and low fire. Pottery cracks when it is super heated. Even modern pottery is reserved for slow cooking. No Open fires please! It was not until the development of bronze and iron that pots made of metal became another choice. Found in Medieval kitchen was a cauldron similar to modern stock pots. A cauldron had a rounded bottom and a curved handle which hung over an open fire. Cauldrons or kettles were used for cooking or boiling liquids. Cauldrons' fell out of favor when they became a symbol of witch craft and the requirement of an open fire.

Stock pots are round, with a flat bottom and handles on either side. A lid is a helpful accessory. Rounded handles become hot when cooking making them less useful then the side top handles sported on modern stock pots. Stock pots are made from a small range of modern metals. Metals useful for pots conduct heat well and are chemically not reactive. Food should not taste like the pan, nor should the qualities of the metal become a part of your diet. Metals that have been used over time is aluminum, copper, cast iron, stainless steel, carbon steel, enamel cast iron, enamel over steel, clad iron or copper, and metal featuring nonstick interiors.

While stainless steel has many great qualities heat conduction is not one of them. A good stainless steel pot should have another more heat conducting metal on the base of the pot.

In construction a stock pot is similar to a large sauce pot. A sauce pot is as tall vertically as the diameter of the bottom. Saucepots are measured by volume. The smaller the sauce pot the more likely it will have just one handle, much longer handle. Stock pots are much larger with two handles on either side in order to use both hands to balance the weight of the pot. Stock pots are also measured by volume usually 6 to 36 liters. A stock pot sides are at least as large as its diameter allowing for stock to simmer for long periods of time. Stock is created by placing vegetables or meats in a large quantity of water and simmering over a long period of time. The reduction of the liquid creates a rich stock (vegetable or meat) to be used as a base for soups, stews, pot pies, and sauces. Some meats do not lend themselves well to stock like pork because of the greasy quality.

Some recommendations for good stock is to start with cold water, add meat at a ratio of one part meet to two parts water, add meat before the vegetables, simmer with bubbles just breaking the top (not boiling), and scum that comes to the top should be skimmed and discarded.

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The Evolution of Perfume - Facts and History

The chronicle of perfume refers to its wide use in ancient Egypt, Rome and the Middle East. Perfume was extensively used by women as beautification ritual and status, besides religious rituals. It also played a significant role in courtship and romance acts.

Classic perfumes were made using aromatic natural raw materials acquired from botanical as well as animal sources. The finished perfumes turned to be highly expensive revealing the production costs and only the opulent class of people could afford it. However, owing to technological advancements and modern chemistry the classic perfume saw gradual transformation into its contemporary version.

The contemporary evolution process initiated in Grasse, South France and stretched to Paris. Grasse is recognized as the perfume and flower capital as it is steeped in the history of perfume. Grasse offers the finest perfumes to all discerning perfumers in the world. Mammoth changes have taken place in perfumery. The art of making perfume today involves creativity and technology. Today, the fruition of perfume has ascertained that they are not reserved only for the privileged class alone. Modern perfumes are available in affordable prices as they are manufactured using aroma chemicals and many man-made aromatic compounds.

Niche and natural perfumers make perfumes in classic style. Big perfume houses on occasions combine aroma chemicals with botanical oils and emerge with novel perfumes. Wearing perfumes is a way of pampering oneself. Men and women apply perfume as pleasure or to express intimacy. However, the fragrance of perfume is appreciated as it has a lingering effect.

Conversely, a perfume smelling good on one person may not smell good on another, and this is due to the interaction between the body and the fragrance that produces a unique scent perception based on the body chemistry. Hence, body chemistry is considered to be a significant factor in creating or even in buying a perfume. A perfume having a good smell on a smelling strip may not be good on you.

Perfume should be purchased only after trying it on your body. You can squirt some perfume on the inside of your wrist and try to smell it after sometime. If the perfume smell is retained, you can get going by buying the perfume or select another one that blends your body. Few things that should be done before purchasing a perfume is that smell the scent and apply it immediately. Its fragrance should be apparent in the surrounding and also should have the ability of lasting longer.

Speaking of perfumes, it is believed that women possess better sense of smell in comparison to men. Similarly, the smell sense is sharper in the afternoons and remembering the smell is very essential. Conversely, perfume fragrance is long lasting on oily skin than dry skins. In general, you can have lasting effect of perfume when the concentration and the aromatic oils in the perfume are higher and heavier.

Following certain guidelines for wearing perfumes helps in retaining it for a longer period. Perfumes have their best effect when applied on pulse points. Subsequently, applying perfumes on the wrist, inside the elbows and behind the ears is suggested. Spraying perfume in the bra cleavage keeps the scent released continuously.

There are plenty of cheap perfume available indicating great savings. Cheap perfume is not considered to be the best purchase as the ingredients used may not be of good standards. However, caution is expected as counterfeit products may smell like original perfume, but made of low grade quality ingredients causing harm to your skin. Hence, buying perfumes of big brands that tries to clear their discontinued products or some liquidated stock is worth purchasing as the price tag will also be appropriate.

Roberto Sedycias works as IT consultant for Polomercantil

History of Mascots

Background of Mascots

The history of mascots dates back to cavemen and early societies who hunted for their livelihood. Early accounts of masked creatures, often resembling animals were drawn or etched on cave walls and depicted in ancient art. Totem poles were filled with likenesses of animals in ancient cultures. These likenesses are much like the concept of the team mascots evident on football fields and basketball courts. Usually in ancient times the history of mascots' shows that these likenesses were often worshiped. This was especially true during times of hunting and harvest. Ancient tribal people would dress up in the likeness of animals or those on totem poles to incite goodwill from them. They believed this would help with successful hunts and bountiful harvests. Also, ancient cultures would dress up in masks or animal like figures for purposes of fertility. Many would dance in the "mascot" like costume to bring about fertility for people in their tribe or village.

Evolution of Mascots

Society has come a long way in its current version of mascots. Mascots as we know them today have been in the same style and incarnation since the 1800's. They began to spring up on high school and college playing fields during that era. Often live animals were used as the official mascots of teams, and athletes were proudly wearing a patch with the mascot on their uniform. The maintenance and upkeep of live animals became costly and cumbersome, so they were largely eliminated. They evolved to resemble the puppet-like versions we see today.

They've got Personality

Mascots are now seen as artists and entertainers with traits that now make it an art form. They have come to be an embodiment of what the team is and may correlate to the location of the team, or some other overriding characteristic that makes the team unique. Effective mascots do not learn their stage presence from a classroom. Having the ability to become one with the character and reflect this through physical action is crucial to being a believable mascot. The person must be able to put their individuality aside and really get into character. Mascots are especially popular with children. They need to act in a way that is child-friendly and not intimidating.

The more personable a mascot is, the more approachable they will be. Plus they will be well-received by fans of all ages. The position of mascot wields a lot of power over crowds at games. They have the ability to either really involve the crowd in the game, or make a poor attempt and cause the crowd to turn on them.

Mascots as Symbols

Throughout the history of mascots, symbology is a major component that keeps rising to the surface. Mascots are often tagged with names that indicate gender and/or certain attributes. For example, a mascot called Robbie the Rabbit would indicate a male rabbit that is fast on its feet. This does a lot to create an image in the mind of fans and anyone thinking about the particular team the mascot represents. Fans will also come to expect the mascot to react in consistent and specific ways to them on a continual basis.

If a mascot has a habit of doing a certain dance, fans may be disappointed if the mascot decides not to do the famous dance on game day. It is a unique job and the rich history of mascots continues to unfold as time goes by. It is a position that requires creativity, consistency, individuality, and strong symbology. Mascots may not be worshiped like they were in ancient societies, but they are powerful images etched upon the minds of fans everywhere. Many times the team is synonymous with the mascot itself.

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History of Fire and Evolution

Not enough thought has been given to the concept of fire with respect to our ancestors and the impact this acquisition has had on our evolution. No animal in the world has ever adopted, as a survival mechanism, a chemical reaction that it could lose and not be able to reacquire. The potential for fire to drive our evolutionary journey is almost unlimited. There can be little doubt that we use fire long before we could make it. The selective process engendered by such a situation is what would lead directly to Homo Sapiens.

Many years ago, Rudyard Kipling wrote a story about a boy named Mowgli. As a baby, Mowgli was lost in the jungle. The child was raised by wolves and came to think of himself as just another animal of the forest. More recently Walt Disney made a movie of Kipling's story calling it The Jungle Book. The movie may be animated, but its truths are real.

Early in the story, Mowgli is kidnapped by monkeys and taken to their leader, an orangutan named King Louie. The crux of the kidnapping is that King Louie would like to know, in some of the finest jazz lyrics around, man's "secret of fire." Alas, Louis is to be disappointed. Mowgli never came into contact with other humans. He knows no more about the secrets of fire than the wolves he was raised with. Louie wanted fire. Louie knew that fire would make him human. The secret of fire separates man from animals in the movie just as it does in real life.

A small group of aquatic apes (or should we by now say homos?) occupy a stretch of beach fronting on a large mixed woodland/grassland plain. There are six males in the troop, ten females, and fifteen offspring of various ages. The males are about five feet five or six inches tall and, maybe, one hundred twenty- five pounds. The females stand at four foot eight to ten inches and around ninety pounds. These Homo Erectus are powerfully built and fully capable of running, climbing trees, and swimming in the water. They make their living mostly on land. The sea in their territory was almost entirely sand bottom and little marine life grew in the area. The sea did have one advantage for our ancestors, however. About 50 yards off shore was a small sandy mound which the troop used as a refuge at night.

These early humans lived by foraging and scavenging. They were equipped with stone tools including small fist-sized rocks used as projectiles. They also carried short, pointed sticks used for digging and for flipping over porcupines so that they could get at the soft underbelly with their flint cutters. These H. Erectus flourished on insects, grubs, lizards, fruits, roots, and scavenged meats and the occasional porcupine. The troop prospered along their length of beach and life was good.

The alpha male in the group was largely responsible for this prosperity. He was a genius. Through trial and error he had discovered that some stones make better tools than others. Now, most of the males had good, sharp flint hand axes. The other males also knew how to form the desired shape from raw stone by watching the alpha male. Even a few of the females carried flint tools, mostly cast-offs from the males, but a few made from scratch. These tools made life marginally easier for the whole troop. The male also made a discovery that contributed substantially to the success of this group of H. Erectus.

Periodically, fire swept the plain and, in the course of burning, the fire would sometimes incinerate the base of a particular shrub. The shrub put out long, single branches from a short gnarled base. The fire would char through these branches when it traversed the plains. Because the branches were green, only the bases would burn through. The alpha male found that these branches made perfect pointed digging sticks. Because they were green, they were more flexible than dry wood, and yet at the base the fire had hardened the wood to such a degree that it held a point very well.

The group liked fire. Of course, it had not always been so. Animals flee fire for the very good reason that fire doesn't care. It will burn anything that gets close to it regardless of size or strength. Over the millennia, those that ran from fire survived. Those that didn't, didn't.

Our Homo Erectus ancestors at one time also feared fire. Caught on the open grasslands, fire would sometimes overtake the entire band and even climbing trees didn't always allow for survival. If the flames were hot enough and high enough, the climbers would perish.

But this troop actually looked forward to fire. They knew that the beach didn't burn and when smoke appeared on the horizon everyone made a beeline for the shore and the safety of the water. It was after the fire had passed that the real fun began. There were insects singed by the fire or even cooked and clearly visible in the ashes. There were lizards, rodents, all types of goodies and best of all no predators. Always with the fire they ran, always. They ran, even from their own kills, which made scavenging that much easier.

It was the alpha male that made the first connection. In the beginning it was difficult because the red dancing flowers could hurt quite badly if one wasn't careful. But fire was fascinating, also. Was it alive? It gave the appearance of eating wood but not like normal eating. It was warm but only up close. It was now red, now black and then white. It grew and died quickly. It only affected certain things. Dry wood it ate, green it sometimes ate and sometimes not and stone it ate not at all. It was truly fascinating.

The male liked to play with fire. At first, he would only poke at it with his digging stick, turning over the burning wood, prodding the ash to see where the fire was. He would wave a smoldering brand in the air to make the red flames jump out of the black char. He would place small twigs on top of burning branches to see the red devour the wood. The big male found fire to be the most fascinating thing in his life.

The problem was that the fire kept going away. A wall of flame would traverse the plain, black smoke rolling and animals fleeing, then it would be gone. The plain would be black and quiet. Here and there a small plume of white smoke would life from a stump or a downed tree but the vast wall of red would be gone or clear over on the horizon and way beyond reach. The male could make the stumps erupt into red but only as long as he fed the fire with wood. Then one day, he had an idea and everything changed.

The shoreline occupied by the troop as well as the small sand spit used for sleeping was littered with driftwood. A river six miles to the south dumped lots of downed trees and well as branches and limbs into the ocean. The currents brought all of this detritus north and, sweeping in shore, dumped a lot of it on the beach and sand spit. The male would use this wood to keep the fire alive. One evening after a fire on the plain, he brought a burning branch back to the shore and thrust it into a pile of driftwood. Almost immediately the dry tinder caught fire and soon the whole troop had to back away from the blaze because of the heat. The troop watched for a while then made their way out to the spit to sleep.

In the morning, the male came ashore and looked at the ashes left from the driftwood fire. Here and there wisps of smoke drifted up from the burned wood. The male turned over a log and red sparks snapped and popped. Quickly he grabbed a handful of twig and put them on the log. A small tendril of smoke drifted up, then more, a twig snapped and charred, in a minute the pile burst into flame. More twigs then branches and soon a roaring fire was burning.

The chill of the water and the coolness of the morning was offset by the heat of the fire. It was nice to wake up wade across to the shore and make up a nice warm fire to start the day. And that is exactly what the troop did. Each evening they would use the ashes of yesterday's fire to start another. Over time, they learned just how much wood to ignite and how to arrange the logs and what burned well and what not so well. One day it rained and they lost their fire. But they remembered and when the next lightning started fire swept the plains they took part of it back to the beach and again looked forward to warm mornings.

One evening as the group was preparing the evening fire, a pack of hyenas showed up. Normally the whole bunch would have dashed into the water but the hyenas seemed reluctant to attack. One of the males picked up a flaming branch and threw it at the pack. Sparks flew and the hyenas scattered. Another brand and the animals fled. It wasn't just fire on the plains that predators feared. It was any fire. .

Homo Erectus learned. They learned to keep fire, first brands, then coals in large clam shells, shells filled with punky wood and two or three coals. Fires that would keep when the two halves of the clam shell were bound together. Fires that had to be protected from water not just rain but anything wet. Even a heavy damp would permeate the punk and snuff out the troops survival mechanism.

There is no doubt that the subjugation of fire put enormous strain on our intellectual capacities. Those groups that could do a better job of holding onto fire prospered. Those that lost fire or were never able to master it, were selected out. Brain power prevailed, Homo Erectus prevailed, and became the first primate to radiate out of Africa. Our ancestors had arrived.

M.A. Curtis brings a unique perspective to the study of human nature. His training as an engineer and years of research have culminated in a book that illustrates how dominance and delusion influence human behavior. For further information, go to: http://www.dominanceanddelusion.com

History and Origin of Miniature Schnauzers

The Miniature Schnauzer (pronounced as Miniature SCHNOW-zer) is a compact robust dog. It is naturally small in size, has whiskers, shaggy beard, and arched spiking eyebrows. This squarely proportioned breed also has long mustache that is regularly sheared to play up with its figure. It has a firm sinewy hair coat. Its hair coat colors vary from black, salt and pepper, to white or black and silver coat. Its salt and pepper or gray shade is the outcome of distinctive dark and light clustering of each hair. This dog's tail is typically curtailed and its frontal legs are neatly straight. The miniature schnauzer's head is long with a black nose and egg-shaped, dark eyes. Its v-shaped ears naturally fold frontward or shorten to a point. It usually weighs thirteen to fifteen pounds and stands from twelve to fourteen inches. The Schnauzer's size enables it to adjust to both small urban districts and country boroughs.

Personality

The miniature schnauzer is a fantastic companion and family pet. It is an affectionate dog who likes to be around people including kids. Some can be suspicious and aloof with strangers, yet the majority enjoys being with a group. It is docile, smart, bouncy and a good watch dog. It is likely to bark often, but it's not as irritating as one imagines.

Origin and History

The actual origin of the Miniature Schnauzers is quite unclear, though speculations declare that the German Terrier, Wolfspitz, and black Poodle are the dog breeds that possibly have took part in the first evolution of the Miniature Schnauzer. This breed was nurtured by means of breeding the Standard Schnauzer with several small dogs, probably with Affenpinschers and Poodles. These dogs were largely employed for hunting, droving, pulling farm carts, stock tender, as well as watching kids and herds. They have a somewhat distinctive personality than other terriers.

In 1492, Albrecht Durer crafted a painting called "Madonna with the Many Animals". In this masterpiece, a Schnauzer was portrayed as a domestic buddy. All Schnauzers are believed to have developed in Bavaria and Wurttemberg kingdoms. The Miniature Schnauzers became recognized in Germany as "kinder watchers" and was chiefly utilized to look after children and farm animals. Eventually, these dogs were also utilized to catch mice since they're good at it in addition to its petite stature which was ideal to slip into snug areas to seize mice.

In those days, the German Pinscher and Schnauzer were of similar breed with only distinction is by their fur. Wire-haired dogs were dubbed as "schnauze" which means "beard". Smooth coated ones were called "pinschers". These two dog types were born in the same brood.

Before the year 1910, the Schnauzer is only recognized in Germany. However following World War I, it grew to be admired all over the globe. In the course of the war, giant schnauzers were espoused as messengers and police. In 1925, the Schnauzer was transported to the United States America and was categorized under the Terrier Group. The next year, they were recognized by the American Kennel Club and became famous in the country as well as other parts of the world.

The schnauzer is categorized into three separate breeds and sizes--the Miniature Schnauzer, Giant Schnauzer and Standard Schnauzer. The Standard Schnauzer is the earliest, archetype breed while the Miniature Schnauzer is considered the smallest and newest breed. The chic Miniature Schnauzer now belongs to the top 10 of the most prevalent dog breeds in the States.

For more information on History and origin of the miniature schnauzers and Temperament Of the Miniature Schnauzers please visit our website.

History of the Earth

The age of the earth is estimated at 4.6 billion years. During the course of this immense period of time, the earth evolved from a cloud of cosmic dust, undergoing constant changes into what we know today.

The earliest era, called Precambrian, encompasses the time period from the very first beginnings of the earth to the time when the first rocks appeared. These rocks contained petrified residues from which it was possible to determine the age of one layer of rocks. No petrified remnants dating back to the Precambrian proper were found. It is not possible to provide any precise information concerning the formation of the rocks of that time because, since that time, the earth has been undergoing constant changes. It is possible to classify only certain processes of the origins of the mountains (most importantly in Northern America, Scotland, and Greenland - Laurentian Plateau formation).

The earth originated probably as a result of a formation of clusters of minuscule particles of cosmic dust and gases, where these were constantly bombarded and joined by new mass particles until finally the whole mass began circling around the sun as the third of a total of nine planets. In the beginning, the earth was hot and it dotted with countless volcanoes. It lacked oxygen and atmosphere. During that stage, life on Earth was impossible.

The earth was slowly cooling down, allowing water vapour and gases to escape and create an atmosphere. It started to rain and the oceans formed. It is probable that the first single-cell animals originated already 3.6 billion years ago, most likely by means of the spontaneous joining of molecules. Later on algae and bacteria evolved and, finally, the first multi-cell animals, such as articulates and cnidaria (coelenterata), which are made of simple cavities surrounded by soft tissue.

Approximately 4 billion years ago, the earth had a solid lithosphere. Later, about 3.9 billion years ago, water began to form on its surface. Immense earth masses originated some 3 billion years ago. In the past, their form and distribution had undergone changes. From a single giant continent encompassing the entire surface of the Earth there emerged the first two continents, which drifted away from each other and divided further.

The Precambrian era is followed by the Paleozoic era. Our knowledge concerning this period rests mainly on the evolution of animal life (fauna). Fossils were found in the rocks of the layers of the earth and, by determining their age, it was possible to estimate the age of the individual layers. The most important fossils of this kind are the trilobites and graptolites. However, within this immense time period, there already existed numerous mollusks, crustaceans, first vertebrates, etc., which evolved in ever greater diversity. By the end of the Paleozoic era there existed the first vertebrates - reptiles, which deposited their eggs on the ground. They evolved from the amphibians. In addition, during the Paleozoic era, the mountain range of Ural originated, uniting Europe and Asia into one continental block. The Appalachians also originated near the end of this era.

During the following era, the Mesozoic, which ended 66 million years ago, emerged the American Andes and Rocky Mountains. There occurred a mass extinction of approximately 90 percent of all animal species. For a long time, dinosaurs dominated life on Earth. They included inhabitants of the oceans, flying dinosaurs as well as land animals. However, they were not the only ones who were evolving. First birds and even small mammals began to appear. During the Jurassic period, i.e., the middle part of the Mesozoic era, a major portion of the European continental mass was flooded, but during the period that followed, the Cretaceous, this continent returned to its original form. These floods explain the fact that marine fossils were found in mountainous areas. When the dinosaurs and numerous reptiles became extinct and, with the dawn of the Tertiary period of the newest era of the Earth 65 million years ago, the Cenozoic, a great diversity of mammals began to appear. Some 55 million years ago horses, proboscideans, and artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates or hoofed mammals) first appeared, followed by (38 million years ago) the anthropoids (apes), hogs, deer, and other animals. The mountain ranges of Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, and Atlas emerged during this period.

During the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic period (following the Tertiary period), the global climate change occurred. Cold periods alternated with warm periods, giant glaciers and enormous inland masses of ice formed and, in the warm periods that followed, there were great floods as a consequence of the melting of these ice masses. Present-day human emerged at the end of this period.

The Earliest Time Period of the Earth (Precambrian)

Geologically, Precambrian Time is the earliest era. It encompasses the time from the formation of the earth's crust more than four billion years ago to the beginning of the Cambrian Era, approximately 590 million years ago, and represents more than 80 percent of the entire history of the earth.

The earliest part of the Precambrian, called Archaean, encompasses the first 1.5 billion years from the origin of the earth. We know very little about this time period. Also, it is not absolutely clear how the earth originated. A part of the sun may have broken away, resulting in the planetary system, which includes our earth, or it may been the result of clusters of cosmic particles.

The prevailing hypothesis is that, when the sun originated through tremendous heat and cooling (contraction), it began to cool down. Matter particles swirling around the sun were transformed by condensation into gases, ice, and radioactive matter, forming new celestial bodies (planetoids). The planetoids, due to their gravity, attracted more and more particles until they became planets circling the sun.

It took at least 10 billion years for the Sun and protoplanets to emerge. The process of formation of planets, together with their moons, possibly ended approximately 5 billion years ago. We call this period "the star era." This is when the Archaean period begins. Following its formation, the earth began to cool down. This process proceeded relatively quickly because the temperature difference between the universe and the earth's crust was considerable.

The atmosphere, which most likely consisted mainly of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen, also cooled down. Water began to form, evaporating constantly, until it turned into "primeval rain" and flooded the earth's surface, which still continued to cool down. The existing rocks were therefore scattered and formed the first rock layers. Oxygen, indispensable for animals and plants, did not yet exist, for which reason life could not originate on earth at that time.

The Archaean period is followed by the Proterozoic period. In recent years, rocks were discovered in different regions of the world which, according to detailed studies and calculations, date back 3.8 billion years. The earliest ones come from sedimentary rocks from South Africa and Greenland. Very few fossils exist from that time and the majority of them are fossilised plants. In the earliest rocks we find mainly filament and spheroidal microorganisms - single-cell algae, while in younger rocks there are already branching filamentous algae and primitive fungi (lichens). These were found in coarse-grained limestone in Ontario and in the rocks from Minnesota and Great Britain.

The Precambrian animal fossils are documented very seldomly. Probably only at the end of this era there existed mainly cnidarians, articulates, hydrozoans, and medusoids. For these mollusks the fossilisation was rather difficult and therefore findings are very rare. During the Cambrian period, however, live organisms having solid body parts began to occur on a larger scale, for which reason their fossils are may be more commonly found. By all indications, in the Precambrian period, the continental regions were empty and desolate.

There were probably inhospitable masses of bare rocks since the slowly emerging life was developing in shallow seas. While the first prokaryota (meaning lacking nucleus) consumed "primeval soup" and during the process of acquiring energy liberated only a small amount of oxygen, with the occurrence of organic matter interacting with solar rays, the production of oxygen increased considerably.

In this manner the content of oxygen in the atmosphere increased, a consequence of which was the formation of a protective ozone layer which deflects damaging ultraviolet sunrays, where only under this protective layer could life on Earth originate.

It is assumed that the temperature was between 0 and 50 degrees Celsius because only on the basis of this assumption could life originate. It is possible that, at that time, ice covered extensive regions. However, it may be assumed that the Earth was not completely covered by masses of ice. As documented by numerous fossils, a number of primitive marine species evolved during the early Cambrian.

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The Paleozoic Period of the Earth

The Paleozoic period of the Earth is the time period between the Precambrian and Mesozoic periods. This era lasted approximately 340 million years and is divided into several periods: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian.

Cambrian is the earliest part of the Paleozoic. Its name is taken from the Roman name for northern Wales, "Cambria," where rocks from this period were found. At that time, approximately 590 million years ago, the continents formed one giant supercontinent called "Gondwana." It included the continents of Africa, Antarctica, South America, Western Australia, as well as parts of India, Florida, Mexico, southern Europe and, possibly, China. These continental masses were situated in the southern hemisphere and extended almost to the south pole. They were separated from the north by a wide band of ocean and then towards the north pole there followed other more articulated continental masses separated by seas.

First the climate was cool to moderate. Later on global warming took place, as documented by scientific studies of red sandstones and saline deposits, such as rock salt, and gypsum.

An extensive development of flora and fauna begins during the Cambrian period. In the seas there developed a diverse number of animals such as fungi (mould), trilobites, and crayfish-like creatures, which had a hard chitin armour. There were also prehistoric mussels. They all lived on the seafloor and medusae existed in the waters. Flora consisted mainly of a vast variety of algae and seaweed. Land plants and animals were not yet in existence but evolved later.

The Cambrian period is followed by the Ordovician period. This period takes its name from a Celtic tribe of Ordovics who inhabited northern Wales and covers the time period between 505 and 439 million years ago. The geographic situation was similar to the one that existed during the Cambrian period but the continents continued to come closer and their coasts were became more flooded. There was an ice age during the Ordovician period. In South America, it is possible to see the moraines deposited by glaciers. The fauna of the invertebrates evolved mainly in the seas during warm climate regions.

Deposits in dark slates indicate that, in the deep waters, lived multi-cell (metazoan) graptolites, an extinct type of flagelliform with a hard exterior chitin skeleton, who formed colonies. A great variety of calcarea evolved in shallow seas. In grainy calcareous layers, we find generally brachiopods and bryozoa, relatives of today's mussels, as well as a great diversity of trilobites. The body of these articulates was covered by a chitin carapace consisting of three interconnected parts. In addition, there were corals and crinoids. The first vertebrates also evolved and possibly the first primitive fish which, however, did not have yet fins or jaws.

There were no complex plants yet, but blue and green algae were spreading from salty seawater to fresher coastal waters. Traces of tracks of reptilian animals similar to centipedes were found in petrified sandbanks dating to the Ordovician. If any animal species existed on land, there would have had to be plants to sustain these animals. However, according to extensive research and calculations, plants did not exist until the following period, called the Silurian period.

The Silurian period is the third period of the earth's Paleozoic stage and its name is derived from the pre-Celtic tribe Silurs, who lived in Wales. It encompasses a period between 438 and 408 million years ago.

From a geographical point of view, there existed two completely interlocked continents; the northern part called the Laurasia and the southern part called the Gondwana. Both parts were alternatively more or less under water. The north pole at that time was probably in the northern Pacific Ocean and it is assumed that the south pole was situated in southwestern Africa. The equator crossed from southeastern Europe, over northern Australia and Greenland to the centre of America.

The climate was mostly humid and warm, turning a little drier at the end of the Silurian. This is indicated by limestone, gypsum, and rock salt dating from that time. This rock salt forms today's salt deposits.

The most common marine animals were invertebrates such as graptolites, trilobites (articulates), and simple corals (cnidarians). Crinoids, as common at that time as algae, consisted of calycinal bodies anchored in the bottom of the sea by means of their stalk. Their bodies were surrounded by tentacles. Corals, which built enormous cliffs that still fascinate scientists today, became extinct approximately 230 million years ago. They were replaced by today's corals, now found in warm seawaters. Marine scorpions and articulates grew to gigantic proportions of up to two metres (Pterygotus).

First jawless fish, which did not have bones but rather a cartilaginoid skeleton, appeared in the seas. We are aware of their existence because they had small bony plates on their head and body, where these plates became fossilised. Two of these species survive today: the eel-like fresh-water lampreys and the slimy, worm-like blennies (blenniidae). At the end of the Silurian period, the first primeval ferns and club moss (lycopodium) appeared on land.

The Devonian period, the fourth period of the earth's Paleozoic stage, which is named after the English county of Devonshire, comprises the period between 490 and 360 million years ago.

The land masses of the continents were constantly moving also during this period. The climate of the northern hemisphere was warm while, in the area of the south pole, there were several ice belts. In linkage to the first beginning in the preceding Silurian period, the intensive evolution of higher types of terran plants continued. These plants were generally horsetails and ferns which, in the late Devonian period, would grow as tall as trees. Thus fauna was injected with new evolutionary impulses.

Numerous new kinds of animals began to evolve, mainly fish. The Devonian period is therefore also called the period of fish. The jawless fish of the preceding Silurian period evolved into shield-headed fish which, as the first vertebrates, also had jaws. Originally the skeleton of the first vertebrates was not formed by bones but by cartilaginoid matter.

During the Devonian period, there were also thorny-finned/lobe-finned fish (ichthyostega). They had thick fins and rigid skeleton and they were able to remain on land. By means of these fins, they could move on land and even abandon a dried-out lake or river and find another water habitat. The ichthyostega are considered as a transitional form toward land animals.

The sea was the habitat mainly of corals, ammonites, snails, conchoidal crayfish and echiderms, as well as trilobites and similar kinds. Scorpions, arachnids, terran reptiles, myriapeds and early, wingless insects were evolving on land.

The Carboniferous period (from the Latin word for coal), is the fifth geological segment of the Earth's Paleozoic. This period, which began 360 million years ago and which ended 286 million years ago, is also called the period of anthracite because, during that time, the largest deposits of this coal in the history of the Earth were formed, a result of a conjunction of favourable climatic, biological, and geological factors.

The climate in central Europe, which at that time was situated near the equator, was tropical and humid, similar to the climate that is found today in the rainforest of the Amazon. During the course of the Carboniferous period, there were powerful movements of the lithospheric plates which resulted in the formation of mountain ranges and valleys between them. Many regions were alternately just above the sea level and slightly below the sea level and dense forests grew in the coastal regions. These were periodically covered by water; when the sea level decreased, these forests underwent vigorous growth again.

The forests consisted of club moss growing up to 30 metres, ferns and horsetails and resembled today's tropical swampy forests. As a consequence of the fluctuation of the water levels, these forests were constantly flooded by water, which formed sediments. When oxygen could not penetrate, peat began to form and later on coal.

The first land vertebrates began to evolve in this environment. The transitional form between fish and land vertebrates (ichthyostega), numerous kinds of amphibians (amphibia), as well as amphibians with rigid skeleton began to evolve.

At the end of the Carboniferous period, many animals using only lungs for breathing and which were are not forced to live only in water, begin to appear. These reptiles did not have to return to the water to lay their eggs in that their eggs generally had leathery shells providing protection against predators and the weather. The group (anapsida), predecessor of today's turtles, was among these reptiles.

During the Carboniferous period, there also lived gigantic myriapods reaching lengths of up to one metre, arachnids, scorpions, prehistoric dragonflies (meganeura), cockroaches, and insects. They lived in higher situated forests consisting already of conifers. Analogous to the Devonian, numerous kinds of algae, plant and animal single-cell organisms, corals, ammonites, and articulates inhabited the oceans. By now, the trilobites had disappeared, although a great variety of fish continued to exist.

The southern hemisphere of the globe was completely different. There was still Gondwana, the continuous continent consisting of a part of North America, India, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. A major portion of this continental mass was situated near the equator of that time and, during the transitional period toward the Permian period, was covered by gigantic ice mass (the Permian-Carboniferous ice age). When, at the end of the Carboniferous period, Gondwana moved over the south pole toward the north, it collided with Laurasia to form a contiguous continental mass called Pangea.

The last geological period of the earth's Paleozoic stage was the Permian period. It represents the period between 286 and 248 million years ago and was named after a former Russian province of Perm situated west of the Ural Mountains.

At that time, Gondwana connected with the northern continents to create a gigantic continental mass called Pangea, resulting in an extensive rising of mountains. This supercontinent was surrounded by a great ocean (Panthalassa). Here, corals, ammonites, and large single-cell animals continued to exist. This was the only period when all the continents formed one continental mass.

Many of the kinds of animals indicated earlier became extinct during the Permian. Causes of this phenomenon are not clear. It is possible that it was linked to the gradual receding of the oceans.

A number of the amphibian animals remained in the vicinity of the water. Another part of this group gradually withdrew. During the Permian period the amphibians of the earth's Paleozoic stage reached their greatest expansion, although this period brought changes for the amphibians. In some regions simultaneously appear early forms of reptiles similar to mammals. They were forcing the amphibians out of their environment or at least competed against them for the space.

Following the unification of Laurasia and Gondwana, the prehistoric amphibians and reptiles penetrated into Gondwana, where these kinds of animals did not exist yet. During the Permian period, there begin to appear cammsaurs - real reptiles. Dimetrodon a Edaphosaurus are examples of this group.

The flora of this period is characterised by the penetration of conifers and the appearance of ginkgophyta. Club moss, horsetails, and ferns, which depended on humid and warm climate, began to recede.

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